Three Pacific Fleet frogmen broke the Russian Navy’s diving record and brandished the national flag as they descended 416 meters into the Sea of Japan during a thrilling underwater rescue training exercise.The experienced divers had to spend three days in a compression chamber before they could begin the journey into the dark void using a diving bell, operating from the Igor Belousov navy rescue ship, the Defense Ministry reported on Tuesday.
During their mission, the frogmen surveyed the area and practiced connecting oxygen lines to a submarine model. The men also unfurled the Russian flag to celebrate their record-breaking dive. The previous record of the Russian Navy was set last year when the same squad descended 317 meters. (from RT news)
COMEX Hydra 10, Hyperbaric Experimental Centre,
Marseille, France, 1992.
The dive protocol required a four-week pre-dive
period, two days confinement at 10 m (33 ft), 13 days to compress to
675 m (2,215 ft) breathing hydro-heliox (a.k.a. hydreliox) (hydrogen
49%, helium 50% and oxygen 1%), and three days of bottom stage between
650 m and 675 m.
One of the divers, Théo Mavrostomos, then moved
into a separate chamber and continued to 701 m (2,300 ft) for a period
of seven hours.
The record experiment required 24 days of decompression followed by 2.5 months post-dive monitoring.
The experimental dive followed COMEX’s Hydra 8 openwater record saturation dive in 1988.
Breathing a gas mixture of hydro-heliox (hydrogen 49%, helium 50% and oxygen 1%), it took four COMEX (Compagnie maritime d’expertises) divers, and two divers of the Marine Nationale (French Navy), eight days to compress inside a chamber to the maximum bottom pressure of 53 atmospheres (780 psi).
A total of six dives were conducted with a total of 28 hours of work at depths of 520 m (1,706 ft) and 534 m (1,752 ft).
Once at depth, the divers conducted pipeline connection exercises in open water.
After completing their assigned tasks, the divers re-entered the chamber for 18 days of decompression.
COMEX divers: Thierry Arnold, Régis Peilho, Patrick Raude, Louis Schneider.
Marine Nationale divers: Serge Icart, Jean-Guy Marcel-Auda
Note : the world record (deepest scuba dive in sea water) was set in 2014 by Ahmed Gabr to a depth of 332.35 m (1,090 ft 4.5 in) : took almost 15 hours of deco to reach the surface.
The detailed craftsmanship of globe making has been refined over centuries—requiring multiple steps and often multiple artists.
In the 1955 video above archived by British Pathé, the skilled globe makers at an unspecified North London firm of geographers take viewers through the fascinating process step-by-step. The globe makers start by applying thick, brown strips of paper around a wooden ball to create the shell, which is then coated in nine layers of plaster.
At the 52-second mark, you can see the globe maker slather fistfuls of the wet plaster over the shell, spinning the sphere so the surface comes out smooth and creamy.
This step alone takes about six hours, the narrator explains. Then the globe gets its geography, which is “like restoring the skin to a peeled orange.”
It’s an important step that can significantly affect the end product if there’s an error. “The covering process calls for a keen eye and a steady hand,” the narrator says.
“A fraction of an inch out will put the world miles out of joint.”
Various shots show the processes involved in manufacturing globes at a factory.
The maps are drawn onto stone with a diamond cutter, working from the original draughtsmen's maps.
Then a printing block is made and the different sections of the maps are printed on large machinery. The sections are cut out by hand, pasted with glue and stuck onto the plain globe.
What will that mean for existing denizens of the abyss?
Diva amon, a researcher at the Natural History Museum in London, spotted her first whale skull in 2013, during an expedition to the Clarion Clipperton Zone (ccz) in the tropical Pacific.
It sat on beige silt, some 4,000 metres beneath the sea’s surface, and was entirely covered in a black coating.
Her find was twice notable.
First, the skull’s coating meant it was millions of years old, for it was made of the same slowly accumulating metallic oxides as the potato-like ore nodules that are drawing miners to the area.
Second, the discovery highlighted how little is known about the deep ocean.
Dr Amon’s whale skull, and others like it, raise questions about the trade-offs between the economic gains of mining the seabed and that mining’s environmental consequences.
Those involved in deep-sea mining hope it will turn into a multi-billion dollar industry.
Seabed nodules are dominated by compounds of iron (which is commonplace) and manganese (which is rarer, but not in short supply from mines on dry land).
However, the nodules also contain copper, nickel and cobalt, and sometimes other metals such as molybdenum and vanadium.
These are in sufficient demand that visiting the bottom of the ocean to acquire them looks a worthwhile enterprise.
Moreover, these metals seldom co-occur in terrestrial mines.
So, as Kris Van Nijen, who runs deep-sea mining operations at Global Sea Mineral Resources (gsr), a company interested in exploiting the nodules, observes: “For the same amount of effort, you get the same metals as two or three mines on land.”
Though their location several kilometres beneath the ocean surface makes the nodules hard to get at in one sense, in another they are easily accessible, because they sit invitingly on the seabed, almost begging to be collected.
Most are found on parts of the ocean floor like the ccz, outside the 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zones of littoral countries.
They thus fall under the purview of the International Seabed Authority (isa), which has issued 17 exploration licences for such resources.
All but one of these licences pertain to the ccz, an area of about 6m square kilometres east-south-east of Hawaii.
The licensees include Belgium, Britain, China, France, Germany, India, Japan, Russia, Singapore and South Korea, as well as several small Pacific island states.
America, which is not party to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea that established the isa, is not involved directly, but at least one American firm, Lockheed Martin, has an interest in the matter through a British subsidiary, uk Seabed Resources.
And people are getting busy.
Surveying expeditions have already visited the concessions.
On land, the required mining machines are being built and tested.
What worries biologists is that if all this busyness does lead to mining, it will wreck habitats before they can be properly catalogued, let alone understood.
The first task, therefore, is to establish what exactly lives down there.
At first glance, the ccz’s abyssal plain does not look of much interest.
It is a vast expanse of mud, albeit littered with nodules.
But, though life here may not be abundant, it is diverse.
Craig Smith, an oceanographer at the University of Hawaii, Manoa, who studies the ocean’s abyssal plain, says that the ccz contains a greater variety of species than the deep seas off the coasts of California and Hawaii.
Some of the ccz’s creatures stretch the imagination.
There is the bizarre, gelatinous, yellow “gummy squirrel” (pictured), a 50cm-long sea cucumber with a tall, wide tail that may operate like a sail.
There are galloping sea urchins that can scurry across the sea floor on long spines, at speeds of several centimetres a second.
There are giant red shrimps, measuring up to 40cm long.
And there are “Dumbo” octopuses, which have earlike fins above their eyes, giving them an eerie resemblance to a well-known cartoon elephant.
Every expedition brings up species that are new to science, many of them belonging to biological families that are also novel.
At a conference in Monterey, California, in September, Dr Smith presented results of a biodiversity survey carried out in the British concession, which sits at the eastern end of the ccz.
Of 154 species of bristle worms the surveyors found, 70% were previously unknown.
Dr Smith says the concession may be part of a biodiversity hotspot, one which would not be represented in the nine protected areas of environmental interest that have been set aside in the ccz.
He therefore argues for the establishment of a tenth such area, on the margins of the concession.
GSR's exploration activities in the Clarion Clipperton Zone (CCZ) focus on three major elements: resource assessment, technology and environment, all of which are shown in this 12-minute video covering the company's 2017 Pacific campaign.
To verify resource estimates undertaken during GSR's 2014 and 2015 campaigns, nodules were collected using deep-sea dredges and box cores.
The technological aspects involved the deployment of 'Patania I', the first tracked vehicle to reach and travel the seafloor at depths of more than 4,500 m.
Meanwhile scientist from both GSR and independent research institutions collected baseline data to better understand sites that may be subject to mining in the future and ensure that any such activities only proceed once the environment impact has been judged acceptable by the international community.
A whale of a tale
The ocean’s largest inhabitants may also be visitors to the ccz.
This summer Leigh Marsh of Britain’s National Oceanography Centre, in Southampton, described more than 3,000 large depressions in the mud there.
These formed a series of curved tracks.
Similar tracks elsewhere have been linked to whales scraping themselves against the seafloor.
Dr Marsh and her colleagues suggest that deep-diving whales may be foraging on the ccz seafloor, using it as a giant loofah to scrape parasites from their skins or even ingesting the nodules as ballast.
If true, this would significantly extend the depth to which whales are known to dive.
The only direct evidence of whales in the ccz, though, comes in fossil form.
In Monterey, Dr Amon set the audience buzzing when she presented preliminary data suggesting that the region contains large deposits of fossil whale bones.
Such fossils were first noted by the Challenger expedition, a world-spanning investigation of the deep ocean conducted in the 1870s by a British naval research vessel.
Dr Amon’s find back in 2013 prompted her and her colleagues to go through tens of thousands of images gathered by various exploration submarines.
These recorded 548 cetacean fossils from a range of species.
Among the oldest was Choneziphius, an extinct animal that lived more than 10m years ago.
Although this work was a study of photographs, rather than of the remains directly, which could cast doubt over some of the identifications, the metallic-oxide coating of many of the bones gives a sense of how old they are.
Because of the density of fossils, Dr Amon says the ccz may be a previously undiscovered, and rare, submarine fossil bed.
Why whale fossils would accumulate in this particular spot is unknown.
Possibly, those elsewhere are simply buried.
The ccz sits beneath the ocean’s clearest waters, so its sediments accumulate extremely slowly.
But it may be that some as-yet-unknown physical process is keeping the fossils and the (equally old) nodules at the surface of the silt.
Indeed, why the nodules are exposed is one of the great mysteries of the region.
Regardless, Dr Smith, Dr Amon and others hope the bones’ presence will be taken into account as the isadrafts the rules and regulations for exploitation of the ccz.
Whale fossils, sea cucumbers and shrimps are just the stuff that is visible to the naked eye.
Adrian Glover, one of Dr Amon’s colleagues at the Natural History Museum, and his collaborators spent weeks peering down microscopes, inspecting every nook and cranny of the surfaces of some of the nodules themselves.
They discovered a miniature ecosystem composed of things that look, at first sight, like flecks of colour—but are, in fact, tiny corals, sponges, fan-like worms and bryozoans, all just millimetres tall.
In total, the team logged 77 species of such creatures, probably an underestimate.
Out of sight. Out of mind?
Inevitably, much of this life will be damaged by nodule mining.
The impacts are likely be long-lasting.
Deep-sea mining technology is still in development, but the general idea is that submersible craft equipped with giant vacuum cleaners will suck nodules from the seafloor.
Those nodules will be carried up several kilometres of pipes back to the operations’ mother ships, to be washed and sent on their way.
The size and power of the submersibles means that they will leave large tracks in their wake.
These are likely to persist for a long time.
Evidence for this comes from various decades-old disturbance experiments.
In 2015 an exploratory expedition by ifremer, a French government agency responsible for oceanography, noted that even mobile animals like sea urchins were 70% less abundant within 37-year-old experimental tracks than outside them.
The largest disturbance experiment so far was carried out in 1989 in the Peru Basin, a nodule field to the south of the Galapagos Islands.
An eight-metre-wide metal frame fitted with ploughs and harrows was dragged back and forth repeatedly across the seabed, scouring it and wafting a plume of sediment into the water.
In 2015 a research vessel returned to the site.
Down went the robots, samplers and submarines with their scanners and cameras.
The big question was, 26 years after the event, would the sea floor have recovered? The answer was a resounding “no”.
The robots brought back images of plough tracks that looked fresh, and of wildlife that had not recovered from the decades-old intrusion.
Another concern, in the wake of the Peru Basin experiment, is sediment.
This will be both stirred up during collection, as the robots crawl across the sea floor and hoover it, and washed off the nodules at the surface when they are cleaned.
Ideally, a second pipe would deliver those washings directly back to the seabed, in order to keep disruption in the water column to a minimum.
In practice, dumping silt overboard will be much easier.
Decades of failure to police overfishing demonstrate how hard it is to regulate activity on the high seas.
If silt were dumped in this way it could be disastrous.
A steady stream of the stuff raining down from the surface would affect everything along the way, especially filter-feeding animals such as sponges and krill, which make their livings by extracting small particles of food floating in the water.
The effect both in the water column and on the sea floor might not be so great in other parts of the oceans, say biologists, but life in the crystalline ccz is wholly unadapted to murky waters.
All of this needs to be balanced against the impacts of mining the equivalent amounts of minerals on land, however.
The ccz covers about 2% of the deep ocean.
A 20-year operation within it would affect of the order of 10,000 square kilometres—about a six-hundredth of its area—according to Mr Van Nijen.
And, unlike mining developments in virgin areas of dry land, which tend to bring other forms of development in their wake by creating transport links that encourage human settlement, no one is going to follow the nodule-hoovers and actually live on the abyssal plain.
DEME unveils innovative nodule collector pre-prototype ‘Patania II'
In the end, the only way to measure how mining would change the bottom of the ocean may be to conduct small-scale pilot operations.
The first will take place next April, when gsr will lower Patania II, an enormous green tractor, to the bed of the ccz.
Patania II is a prototype nodule collector.
It will clear areas roughly 300 by 100 metres, leaving them nodule-free, so that future expeditions can return and study recolonisation rates.
An array of sensors suspended in the nearby water will monitor the resultant silt plume, which the company’s models suggest could travel up to 5km—not the hundreds of kilometres that some have suggested.
To scrutinise this trial independently, jpi Oceans, an intergovernmental research body, has paid for the Sonne, a German research vessel, to sail alongside gsr’s.
As Mr Van Nijen puts it, “We need to validate our equipment, but from an environmental perspective, the world’s first mining test at depth is a unique opportunity for scientists to study the impacts.
If we don’t do this in a transparent manner, it will go nowhere.”
That sounds like a promising start.
But however careful the miners are, life for the inhabitants of the ccz is about to get a lot less peaceful than it has been for millions of years.
Either on TV or in real life, we have all seen a beautiful scene of the ocean where the waves roll smoothly from sea to shore.
There are often even surfers trying to catch these large waves to experience the ocean’s power.
However, have you ever considered where these waves come from or what distances they travel to reach the shore?
Nature’s Wave Generator
The majority of large waves on the ocean surface are generated by big storms.
Storms function as a wave generator, producing waves that travel outwards from its center and across the surface of the sea.
These waves consist of a mix of swell and white caps with different sized surf radiating away from the area under the storm.
These waves are able to push beyond the boundaries of a storm due to the wave propagation speed being faster than the storm motion itself.
Wavelength is the distance between waves, and typically, waves in larger sizes travel faster due to their longer wavelengths.
As different sized waves travel away from the storm area, they’ll disperse at different speeds.
Ocean and wave conditions differ dramatically across both distances and days.
However, waves with equal wavelengths can be nearly evenly spaced across distances.
These waves are commonly known as swells.
As these swells consist of similar wavelength waves, they travel at the same speeds, punctuated across the surface of the ocean.
Longer and faster waves on the other hand, push ahead of their smaller counter parts, leaving shorter, slower waves radiating from the center of a storm behind the rest.
courtesy of Surfer
The Science Behind the Swells
To understand why different waves move at different speeds we need to know that wave speed is both a function of wavelength and wave period, and is related to the wind velocity where the waves form.
Wave period is dictated by the period of time that passes between waves and is directly related to the speed the wave is travels at.
Wave speed is determined by dividing the wavelength (L) by the wave period (T).
Comparison of wavelength to wave speed and wave period
If the wave period is longer, the wave is faster and more powerful.
Additionally, the greater the period, typically the higher the wave breaks as it gets to the shore.
This is contributed to the fact that a longer period swell impacts water much deeper in the ocean than short period swells.
The main factors that affect wave characteristics are wind speed, storm duration, and fetch.
Fetch is the distance wind blows over the open water.
In layman terms, if we have large fetch, long duration and strong winds, there will be large, long period waves.
Furthermore, the waves that have dispersed from their generation area are separated according to their speeds and wavelengths (called swell waves).
Swell direction is the direction from which the swell is coming and is measured in degrees.
Bring on the swell, photo Miah Klein
Visualizing Swells
If we now look at the animation above, where Typhoon Yutu brews over the Western Pacific ocean, we can see a similar swell formation.
The wind barbs shown on the animation show wind speed and direction.
Significant height of primary swell waves and wind speed barbs over the Western Pacific Ocean from October 23rd to October 27th, 2018. The values above are masked out by NOAA, as we visualize their WaveWatch III dataset by using Planet OS API.
The reason why there is no significant swell height values in the middle of the typhoon is due to the variable uncertainties from the huge storm with its messy, chaotic wind and wave patterns.
Once waves start to travel away from the eye of the storm, their accompanying swell values are also observed.
In this animation, we can see more precisely how waves with different height become separated by the wave propagation speed.
Additionally, these same waves that are formed within typhoon reach the shore of Japan only a few days later, crossing a distance of over 1200 miles (2000 km).
But, notably, the typhoon isn’t the only force that generates waves, there is also another smaller storm brewing near Japan that produces an additional small swell.
The Speed of Waves
In the next animation, we have shown the mean period of primary swell waves during the same time frame.
Here we wanted to show how different wavelengths travel at varying speeds.
Again, with the longer wavelength of a wave meaning the longer the wave period.
Below, we can see how longer periods reach the shore faster than waves with shorter periods.
As waves increase in size, the accompanying colors increase in brightness.
Model data effectively communicates the theory of swell wave propagation.
Thanks to the NOAA ww3 dataset, we are able to make animations of swell propagation near Typhoon Yutu and more.
Mean period of primary swell waves from NOAA ww3 dataset.
